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A directional coupler uses materials like copper (conductivity ~5.96×10⁷ S/m), dielectric substrates like FR4 (dielectric constant ~4.5), or PTFE for high frequencies (loss tangent <0.001), and ferrite cores for low-frequency coupling (permeability up to 10,000). Dielectric Substrates In designing directional couplers, the type of dielectric substrate used forms their performance, cost, and the extent to […]

There are several types of cable ends, including N-Type, BNC, SMA, F-Type, and TNC connectors. For example, the N-Type connector handles frequencies up to 11 GHz and 100 watts of power, while BNC connectors are commonly used in frequencies up to 4 GHz for video and data transmission in communications and broadcasting. N-Type Connector The

Losses in a WR187 waveguide stem from conductor losses (~0.02 dB/m at 5 GHz), surface roughness (>1 µm increases resistance), leakage (~0.1 dB from misaligned flanges), and bends (~0.02 dB for 90°). Minimize losses with smoother surfaces, precise alignment, and larger bend radii (≥3a). Conductor Losses Conductor losses in a WR187 waveguide primarily arise due

The beamwidth of a quad-ridged horn antenna varies with frequency. At 1 GHz, it’s typically around 60°, narrowing to 15° at 18 GHz. Measure it by sweeping angles in an anechoic chamber and recording points where power drops to -3 dB. Adjusting flare angle also fine-tunes beamwidth. Frequency Dependency The beamwidth in a quad-ridged horn

The seven types of electromagnetic waves are radio (1mm-100km wavelengths), microwaves (1mm-1m), infrared (700nm-1mm), visible light (400-700nm), ultraviolet (10-400nm), X-rays (0.01-10nm), and gamma rays (<0.01nm). Each has unique uses, like Wi-Fi, remote controls, and medical imaging. Radio Waves Radio waves are a significant part of life, normally with frequencies below 300 GHz and wavelengths from

Physical obstructions, weather, and atmospheric layers disrupt radio waves significantly. For example, heavy rain can reduce signal strength by 20 dB per kilometer at 12 GHz. Solutions include using higher frequencies for clearer paths or placing antennas to avoid reflective surfaces and interference sources. Physical Obstructions Obstructions in the physical realm have a lot to